Cloning: There’ll Never Be Another You

Depending upon your point of view, cloning organisms may sound like a
nightmare or a dream come true. Whatever your opinion, cloning is most definitely
not science fiction; decisions about experimental cloning are being
made right now, every day. This chapter covers cloning: what it is, how it’s
done, and what its impact is from a biological point of view. Cloning (like just
about everything else in science) isn’t as simple as the media makes it sound.
In this chapter, you get to know the problems inherent in clones along with
the arguments for and against cloning (not just of humans — of animals and
plants, too). Get ready for an interesting story. Remember, it ain’t fiction!

cloning

The other use of the word cloning means to make a copy of an entire organism
as a reproductive strategy. When referring to a whole creature as opposed to
DNA, a clone is an organism that’s created via asexual reproduction, meaning
offspring are produced without the parent having sex first. Cloning occurs naturally
all the time in bacteria, plants, insects, fish, and lizards. For example,
one type of asexual reproduction is parthenogenesis, which occurs when a
female makes eggs that develop into offspring without being fertilized by a
male (for some of you female readers, I’m sure this sounds very appealing). So
if reproduction by cloning is a natural, normal biological process, what’s the
big deal with cloning organisms using technology?

Attack of the Clones

A clone is simply an identical copy. The word is used as both a verb, as in “to
clone” (make one) and a noun, as in “a clone” (have one or be one).
Genetically, the word clone can have two meanings. When geneticists talk
about cloning, they’re most often talking about copying some part of the DNA
(usually a gene). Geneticists clone DNA in the lab every day — the technology
is simple, routine, and unremarkable.

Cloning before Dolly: Working with sex cells

Experimental cloning started in the 1950s. In 1952, researchers transplanted
the nucleus from a frog embryo into a frog egg. This and subsequent experiments
were designed not to clone frogs but to discover the basis of totipotents.

cells rearrange

After a few more divisions, the cells rearrange into a three-layered ball called
a gastrula. The innermost layer of the gastrula is endoderm (literally “inner
skin”), the middle is mesoderm (“middle skin”), and the outermost is ectoderm
(“outer skin”). Each layer is composed of a batch of cells, so from the
gastrula stage onward, what cells turn into depends on which layer they start
out in. In other words, the cells are no longer totipotent; they have specific
functions.

therapeutic cloning

The promise of therapeutic cloning is that someday doctors will be able to
harvest your cells, use your DNA to make totipotent cells, and then use those
cells to cure your life-threatening disease or restore your damaged spinal
cord to full working order. Creating totipotent cells from nullipotent cells to
treat injury or disease is difficult and triggers significant ethical debates (see
“Weighing Both Sides of the Cloning Debate” later in this chapter). Realizing
the potential of therapeutic cloning may be a very long way off. Meanwhile,
reproductive cloning — the process of creating offspring asexually — is
already causing quite a stir. For a taste of some of the excitement, see the
sidebar “Aclone in the universe?”.

Artificial twinning

Artificial twinning is relatively simple and was first done successfully (in
sheep) in 1979. A single fertilized egg was used, meaning that the resulting
offspring was the result of sexual reproduction. Zygotes from normally fertilized
(sexually produced) eggs were harvested from ewes (female sheep). The
zygote was allowed to divide up to the 16-cell stage (see the “Cloning before
Dolly: Working with sex cells” section earlier in the chapter). The 16 cells
were then divided into two groups. The separate groups of cells went right on
dividing, and after they were implanted into the reproductive tract of the
ewe, they resulted in twins. The twins were genetically identical to each other
because they were produced from the same fertilized egg.

Skin Cancer

Skin Cancer
Skin cancer is a disease in which cancer cells grow in the tissues of the skin. There are two major groups: nonmelanoma and melanoma. Nonmelanoma skin cancers are by far the most common types of cancer, with more than 1 million new cases diagnosed annually, and most are highly curable. Melanoma is much less common, but more serious. Melanoma is highly curable in its early stages, but may spread to other parts of the body.

At Ohio State's Comprehensive Cancer Center – James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, we have skin cancer experts who have dedicated their lives to providing the best skin cancer research and treatment. With research and treatment areas under one roof, we are better able to apply research advances to patient care. Recent research advancements include:
A laboratory study led by Anne VanBuskirk, PhD, OSUCCC Immunology Program, to find immunological approaches to help organ transplant patients fight skin cancer, a disease to which they are highly susceptible.

Clinical trials directed by William Carson, MD, a surgical oncologist at The James and leader of the OSUCCC Immunology Program, and Michael Walker, MD, a surgical oncologist specializing in melanoma at The James, based on immunology and the promise of a “vaccine” to help slow or stop the growth of malignant melanoma.

A study examining the use of a newly developed, molecularly targeted drug designed to inhibit key cancer growth factors. Interim results suggest the drug may be helpful in controlling malignant melanoma, which typically responds poorly to traditional treatments with chemotherapy or radiation.

Prostate Cancer

The prostate, part of the male reproductive system, is a gland located under the bladder and in front of the rectum. Prostate cancer usually begins in the gland cells and grows slowly, so many men have prostate cancer but are unaware of it. Sometimes, however, prostate cancer will grow and spread quickly. Prostate cancer is highly curable when detected and treated early.

Unfortunately, many men with prostate cancer become confused regarding the complex array of options that are available for prevention and treatment. The Prostate Cancer and Genitourinary Oncology Program at The James can help men and their families choose among the array of prostate cancer treatment options.

In addition, The James is a cutting-edge research facility where discovery is translated into more effective prevention and diagnostic strategies as well as more effective and safer treatments. Among recent research advances:

The James was one of many sites in a national study involving 18,000 men that demonstrated the ability of a hormonal agent, finasteride, to reduce the risk of prostate cancer by 25 percent. More than 250 men in Ohio and Kentucky participated through the Ohio State clinics directed by Steven K. Clinton, MD, PhD, and Robert Bahnson, MD. The study was the first in history to demonstrate that an intervention could protect men from developing prostate cancer.

The James is participating in the largest prostate cancer prevention trial to date, called SELECT (Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial). The Ohio State effort, directed by J. Paul Monk, MD, and Drs. Clinton and Bahnson, will determine whether dietary supplements of vitamin E and selenium can prevent prostate cancer. The 12-year study is expected to involve more than 400 trial sites, with approximately 32,000 healthy men over the age of 55 (over 50 for African-Americans) participating.

Dr. Clinton and colleagues at the OSUCCC – James are seeking to prove whether consumption of tomato-based products and soy can reduce the risk of prostate cancer, as epidemiologic studies have suggested. These investigators are bringing dietary and nutritional studies into the clinic, where men with prostate cancer are able to participate in these important and exciting clinical trials.

Lung Cancer

Cancer of the lung, like all cancers, results from an abnormality in the body's basic unit of life, the cell. Normally, the body maintains a system of checks and balances on cell growth so that cells divide to produce new cells only when needed. Disruption of this system of checks and balances on cell growth results in an uncontrolled division and proliferation of cells that eventually forms a mass known as a tumor.
Tumors can be benign or malignant; when we speak of "cancer," we refer to those tumors that are considered malignant. Benign tumors can usually be removed and do not spread to other parts of the body. Malignant tumors, on the other hand, grow aggressively and invade other tissues of the body, allowing entry of tumor cells into the bloodstream or lymphatic system and then to other sites in the body. This process of spread is termed metastasis; the areas of tumor growth at these distant sites are called metastases. Since lung cancer tends to spread or metastasize very early in its course, it is a very life-threatening cancer and one of the most difficult cancers to treat. While lung cancer can spread to any organ in the body, certain organs -- particularly the adrenal glands, liver, brain, and bone -- are the most common sites for lung-cancer metastasis.
The lung is also a very common site for metastasis from tumors in other parts of the body. Tumor metastases are made up of the same type of cells as the original, or primary, tumor. For example, if prostate cancer spreads via the bloodstream to the lungs, it is metastatic prostate cancer in the lung and is not lung cancer.

The principal function of the lungs is the exchange of gases between the air we breathe and the blood. Through the lung, carbon dioxide is removed from the bloodstream and oxygen from inspired air enters the bloodstream. The right lung has three lobes, while the left lung is divided into two lobes and a small structure called the lingula that is the equivalent of the middle lobe. The major airways entering the lungs are the bronchi, which arise from the trachea. The bronchi branch into progressively smaller airways called bronchioles that end in tiny sacs known as alveoli where gas exchange occurs. The lungs and chest wall are covered with a thin layer of tissue called the pleura.
Lung cancers can arise in any part of the lung, but 90%-95% of cancers of the lung are thought to arise from the epithelial, or lining cells of the larger and smaller airways (bronchi and bronchioles); for this reason, lung cancers are sometimes called bronchogenic carcinomas or bronchogenic cancers. Cancers can also arise from the pleura (the thin layer of tissue that surrounds the lungs), called mesotheliomas, or rarely from supporting tissues within the lungs, for example, blood vessels.

Pancreatic Cancer

The pancreas is an organ in the upper abdomen located beneath the stomach and adjacent to the first portion of the small intestine, called the duodenum. The pancreas is composed of glands that are responsible for a wide variety of tasks. The glandular functions of the pancreas can be divided into the following 2 categories:
Exocrine: The exocrine glands secrete enzymes into ducts that eventually empty into the duodenum. These enzymes then help in the digestion of food as it moves through the intestines.
Endocrine: The endocrine glands secrete hormones, including insulin, into the bloodstream. Insulin is carried by the blood throughout the rest of the body to assist in the process of using sugar as an energy source. Insulin also controls the levels of sugar in the blood.
The pancreas can be divided into the following 4 anatomical sections:
Head - The rightmost portion that lies adjacent to the duodenum
Uncinate process - An extension of the head of the pancreas
Body - The middle portion of the pancreas
Tail - The leftmost portion of the pancreas that lies adjacent to the spleen
Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasia (IPMN) is a type of pancreatic cancer that is beginning to be recognized more frequently. This pancreatic cancer has a better prognosis than other types of pancreatic cancer. Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasia is usually diagnosed endoscopically (see Exams and Tests).
The most common type of pancreatic cancer arises from the exocrine glands and is called adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. The endocrine glands of the pancreas can give rise to a completely different type of cancer, referred to as pancreatic neuroendocrine carcinoma or islet cell tumor. This article only discusses issues related to the more common type of pancreatic adenocarcinoma.Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is among the most aggressive of all cancers. By the time that pancreatic cancer is diagnosed, most people already have disease that has spread to distant sites in the body. Pancreatic cancer is also relatively resistant to medical treatment, and the only potentially curative treatment is surgery. In 2004, approximately 31,800 people in the United States were diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, and approximately 31,200 people died of this disease. These numbers reflect the challenge in treating pancreatic cancer and the relative lack of curative options.

Brain Awareness Week 2009

Earlier this week members of the Galway Neuroscience Group reported their experience of holding a public event as part of global 'Brain Awareness Week'. Supported financially by the Dana Foundation, BAW is a multi-national effort aimed at making as many people as possible interested in their own brains. Activities include visits to schools by neuroscientists, or information dissemination by various neurological organisations like Neurology Alliance Ireland, Dystonia Ireland, the Dublin Brain Bank and MS Ireland. Galway neuroscientists chose 'The beauty of neuroscience' as their theme, displaying beautiful prints of cells and tissue gnerated during the course of their own research activities. Poster stands and a microscope with sample tissue and cells for viewing, were set up at the Eyre Square Shopping centre on March 19th and 20th. A separate table dedicated to interactive questionairs and brain colouring booklets for children was also a feature. For more information about the activities of the Galway Neuroscience Group, go to http://www.ncbes.ie/research/NeuroscienceOverview.htm

Biomedical technology and Silicon Valley

On Thursday, Jan 31st, I attended a seminar on Biomedical Technology hosted by Silicon Valley Technical Institute. The instructor was Dr. Sudhi Gautam, an ex-ENT surgeon with a PhD in Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology. For a layman in biomedical technology like me, it was an eye-opener. Overall, a most excellent introduction to biomedical technology.

To begin with, I did not know the difference between biotechnology and biomedical engineering (not to be confused with bioengineering). It turns out that biotechnology is best defined as the technology concerned with manipulation of living cells and is most related to biology. Biomedical engineering is at the convergence of technology, medicine and biology and is focused on developing medical devices and systems. Bioengineering is concerned with modification animal and plant cells by manipulating their genetic and cellular properties. So similar sounding names, with very different meanings. Furthermore, the regulatory approval process in the United States is dramatically different for biotechnology compared to biomedical devices.

Biomedical devices are classified based on their level of risk application and impact, and in the low risk devices can be approved anywhere from 90 days to 3 years. Biotechnology applications, especially where they have therapeutic applications go through the same cycle of approvals and clinical trial as pharmaceutical drugs and can generally take anywhere from 4 to 7 years or more to get approved. Some of the higher risk biomedical devices like pacemakers and robotic surgery machines like those from Intuitive Surgical can also take as long to be approved by the US regulatory bodies.

Where it gets very interesting is in that biomedical engineering, because of its intersection between engineering and medicine, has a great deal of relevance to Silicon Valley. Even with all the advances in medicine today, the gap between medicine and technology outside of medicine is huge. This makes the health care system very inefficient. This triggers the opportunity, which is so characteristic of others, which Silicon Valley exploits best, with its mix of capital, technology and entrepreneurship. California has close to 2600 biomedical companies, with over 700 in the Bay Area alone. Silicon Valley appears to be the biggest hub for biomedical technology, followed by Orange County, Minneapolis and the Northeastern US. Many of the Bay Area companies are spinoffs from Stanford, UC Berkeley and UCSF. The estimate is that 50% of the world’s biotech and biomedical companies are in the US and a very high percentage of them are in California. US biomedical devices are valued worldwide due to the rigorous approval process and quality requirements they are subjected to. These devices require a significant amount of engineering design and and in many cases have significant semiconductor content. Where the devices are endorsed by Medicare or the insurance companies for use by their patients, the volume can also be considerable at pretty good margins.

The latest biomedical device company in the news is Intuitive Surgical (mentioned earlier) of Sunnyvale, CA. They make the robotic surgery machines, called the da Vinci surgical system. These are approved only for three or four types of surgical procedures in the US (they are seeking approval for more types of procedures), but are still in hot demand in India and other countries. The latest rumor is that their machines have been approved for hysterectomies by the US regulatory bodies. This may account for the fact that their stock (ISRG) surged over 17% on Friday, February 2nd alone and is up close to 50% in less than a month.

So, following semiconductors, computers, the Internet, the iPod and iPhone, we have a lineup of alternative energy, biotech and biomedical products to supply the world. These are exciting times indeed for Silicon Valley.

Cancer symptoms n detection

Abnormal sensations or conditions that persons can notice that are a result of a cancer. It is important to see your doctor for regular checkups and not wait for problems to occur. But you should also know that the following symptoms may be associated with cancer: changes in bowel or bladder habits, a sore that does not heal, unusual bleeding or discharge, thickening or lump in the breast or any other part of the body, indigestion or difficulty swallowing, obvious change in a wart or mole, or nagging cough or hoarseness. These symptoms are not always a sign of cancer. They can also be caused by less serious conditions. Only a doctor can make a diagnosis. It is important to see a doctor if you have any of these symptoms. Don't wait to feel pain. Early cancer often does not cause pain.
Cancer detection:
Methods used to find cancer in persons who may or may not have symptoms. Symptoms of cancer are abnormal sensations or conditions that persons can notice that are a result of the cancer. It is important to your doctor for regular checkups and not wait for problems to occur. But you should also know that the following symptoms may be associated with cancer: changes in bowel or bladder habits, a sore that does not heal, unusual bleeding or discharge, thickening or lump in the breast or any other part of the body, indigestion or difficulty swallowing, obvious change in a wart or mole, or nagging cough or hoarseness. These symptoms are not always a sign of cancer. They can also be caused by less serious conditions. Only a doctor can make a diagnosis. It is important to see a doctor if you have any of these symptoms. Don't wait to feel pain. Early cancer often does not cause pain.

Cancer registry

A register designed to collect information about the occurrence (incidence) of cancer, the types of cancers that occur and their locations within the body, the extent of cancer at the time of diagnosis (disease stage), and the kinds of treatment that patients receive. In the US, these data are reported to a central statewide registry from various medical facilities, including hospitals, physicians' offices, therapeutic radiation facilities, freestanding surgical centers, and pathology laboratories.
Data collected by state cancer registries enable public health professionals to better understand and address the cancer burden. Registry data are critical for targeting programs focused on risk-related behaviors (eg, tobacco use and exposure to the sun) or on environmental risk factors (eg, radiation and chemical exposures). Such information is also essential for identifying when and where cancer screening efforts should be enhanced and for monitoring the treatment provided to cancer patients. In addition, reliable registry data are fundamental to a variety of research efforts, including those aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of cancer prevention, control, or treatment programs.
State cancer registries in the US and comparable cancer registries in all countries are designed to:
Monitor cancer trends over time.
Determine cancer patterns in various populations.
Guide planning and evaluation of cancer control programs (eg, determine whether prevention, screening, and treatment efforts are making a difference).
Help set priorities for allocating health resources.
Advance clinical, epidemiologic, and health services research.
Provide information for a national database of cancer incidence.
In the US, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has administered the National Program of Cancer Registries (NPCR) since 1994. This program is currently helping states and U.S. territories to:
Improve their cancer registries.
Meet standards for data completeness, timeliness, and quality.
Use cancer data to support cancer prevention and control programs.
Train registry personnel.
Establish computerized reporting and data-processing systems.
Develop laws and regulations that strengthen registry operations.
Before the NPCR was established, 10 states in the US had no cancer registry and most states with registries lacked the resources and legislative support needed to gather complete data. With fiscal year 2002 funding of approximately $40 million, CDC's NPCR supported central registries and promoted the use of registry data in 45 states, the District of Columbia, and the territories of Puerto Rico, the Republic of Palau, and the Virgin Islands. CDC also developed special research projects such as studies to examine patterns of cancer care in specific populations. CDC's goal is for all states to maintain registries that provide high-quality data on cancer and cancer care.
NPCR complements NCI's Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) registry program. Together, NPCR and the SEER program collect cancer data for the entire U.S. population. The SEER program gathers in-depth data on cancer cases diagnosed in Connecticut, Hawaii, Iowa, New Mexico, and Utah, as well as in six metropolitan areas and several rural/special population areas. The six metropolitan SEER registries and some of the rural/special population registries submit data to NPCR's state registries. In 2001, SEER began providing additional support to four NPCR-supported state registries (California, Kentucky, Louisiana, and New Jersey).
A cancer registry operated on the state level in the United States. Data collected by state cancer registries enable public health professionals to better understand and address the cancer burden. Registry data are critical for targeting programs focused on risk-related behaviors (eg, tobacco use and exposure to the sun) or on environmental risk factors (eg, radiation and chemical exposures). Such information is also essential for identifying when and where cancer screening efforts should be enhanced and for monitoring the treatment provided to cancer patients. In addition, reliable registry data are fundamental to a variety of research efforts, including those aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of cancer prevention, control, or treatment programs.
State cancer registries in the US and comparable cancer registries in all countries are designed to:
Monitor cancer trends over time.
Determine cancer patterns in various populations.
Guide planning and evaluation of cancer control programs (eg, determine whether prevention, screening, and treatment efforts are making a difference).
Help set priorities for allocating health resources.
Advance clinical, epidemiologic, and health services research.
Provide information for a national database of cancer incidence.

Managing Cancer Pain

The World Health Organization developed a 3-step approach for pain management based on the severity of the pain:
For mild to moderate pain, the doctor may prescribe a Step 1 pain medication such as aspirin, acetaminophen, or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). Patients should be monitored for side effects, especially those caused by NSAIDs, such as kidney, heart and blood vessel, or stomach and intestinal problems.
When pain lasts or increases, the doctor may change the prescription to a Step 2 or Step 3 pain medication. Most patients with cancer -related pain will need a Step 2 or Step 3 medication. The doctor may skip Step 1 medications if the patient initially has moderate to severe pain.
At each step, the doctor may prescribe additional drugs or treatments (for example, radiation therapy).
The patient should take doses regularly, "by mouth, by the clock" (at scheduled times), to maintain a constant level of the drug in the body; this will help prevent recurrence of pain. If the patient is unable to swallow, the drugs are given by other routes (for example, by infusion or injection).
The doctor may prescribe additional doses of drug that can be taken as needed for pain that occurs between scheduled doses of drug.
The doctor will adjust the pain medication regimen for each patient's individual circumstances and physical condition.
Acetaminophen and NSAIDs
NSAIDs are effective for relief of mild pain. They may be given with opioids for the relief of moderate to severe pain. Acetaminophen also relieves pain, although it does not have the anti-inflammatory effect that aspirin and NSAIDs do. Patients, especially older patients, who are taking acetaminophen or NSAIDs should be closely monitored for side effects. Aspirin should not be given to children to treat pain.
Opioids
Opioids are very effective for the relief of moderate to severe pain. Many patients with cancer pain, however, become tolerant to opioids during long-term therapy. Therefore, increasing doses may be needed to continue to relieve pain. A patient's tolerance of an opioid or physical dependence on it is not the same as addiction (psychological dependence). Mistaken concerns about addiction can result in undertreating pain.
Types of Opioids
There are several types of opioids. Morphine is the most commonly used opioid in cancer pain management. Other commonly used opioids include hydromorphone, oxycodone, methadone, fentanyl, and tramadol. The availability of several different opioids allows the doctor flexibility in prescribing a medication regimen that will meet individual patient needs.
Guidelines for Giving Opioids
Most patients with cancer pain will need to receive pain medication on a fixed schedule to manage the pain and prevent it from getting worse. The doctor will prescribe a dose of the opioid medication that can be taken as needed along with the regular fixed-schedule opioid to control pain that occurs between the scheduled doses. The amount of time between doses depends on which opioid the doctor prescribes. The correct dose is the amount of opioid that controls pain with the fewest side effects. The goal is to achieve a good balance between pain relief and side effects by gradually adjusting the dose. If opioid tolerance does occur, it can be overcome by increasing the dose or changing to another opioid, especially if higher doses are needed.

Cancer

Cancer is a term used for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and are able to invade other tissues. Cancer cells can spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems.
Cancer is not just one disease but many diseases. There are more than 100 different types of cancer. Most cancers are named for the organ or type of cell in which they start - for example, cancer that begins in the colon is called colon cancer; cancer that begins in basal cells of the skin is called basal cell carcinoma.
Cancer types can be grouped into broader categories. The main categories of cancer include:
Carcinoma - cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs.
Sarcoma - cancer that begins in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue.
Leukemia - cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the blood.
Lymphoma and myeloma - cancers that begin in the cells of the immune system.
Central nervous system cancers - cancers that begin in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord.
Origins of Cancer
All cancers begin in cells, the body's basic unit of life. To understand cancer, it's helpful to know what happens when normal cells become cancer cells.
The body is made up of many types of cells. These cells grow and divide in a controlled way to produce more cells as they are needed to keep the body healthy. When cells become old or damaged, they die and are replaced with new cells.
However, sometimes this orderly process goes wrong. The genetic material (DNA) of a cell can become damaged or changed, producing mutations that affect normal cell growth and division. When this happens, cells do not die when they should and new cells form when the body does not need them. The extra cells may form a mass of tissue called a tumor.

Not all tumors are cancerous; tumors can be benign or malignant.
Benign tumors aren't cancerous. They can often be removed, and, in most cases, they do not come back. Cells in benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body.
Malignant tumors are cancerous. Cells in these tumors can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body. The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another is called metastasis.
Some cancers do not form tumors. For example, leukemia is a cancer of the bone marrow and blood.
Cancer Statistics
A new report from the nation's leading cancer organizations shows that, for the first time since the report was first issued in 1998, both incidence and death rates for all cancers combined are decreasing for both men and women, driven largely by declines in some of the most common types of cancer.

Biological Therapy

Biological therapy (BYE-o-loj-ee-cal THER-ah-py) is a type of treatment that works with your immune system. It can help fight cancer or help control side effects (how your body reacts to the drugs you are taking) from other cancer treatments like chemotherapy.The immune system of the patient is treated in a bio therapy. It not only strengthens your immune system but also helps in ensuring that you are able fight against the side effects. In a bio therapy the therapist inserts some natural substances into the patient's body.The bio therapy drugs will perform two functions simultaneously. Firstly it will destroy the harmful cells responsible for diseases like cancer . Secondly it will segregate your regular cells from them. This will make sure that your body is able to function in a routine manner. Since these two tasks are performed simultaneously you will be able to get relief in a shorter period in biotherapy.Biotherapy treatment supplies natural substances to fight against diseases to the whole and to the affected region . The therapist identifies the energy levels in the infected area and then goes ahead with the therapy after calculating the amount to be supplemented. The success of bio therapy treatment also lies in allocating the appropriate amount of energy. If the energy levels are in excess or it is not supplied adequately the consequences will be severe. It takes less than a few hours to administer biological therapy. The treatement varies from case to case.Some minor problems may even be cured within 20 or 20 minutes though not in a single session. Most of the therapist will insist that you do a follow up by regular checkups to ensure that the energy levels remain constantly in the body at the same level.Bio therapy is very helpful to cure skin diseases and as well as regularize your digestive system.Bio therapy is well known for treating ailments like cancer. Cancer immunotherapy is not similar to the laser treatment provided for cancer patients. In a laser treatment the harmful cells are killed. But in a bio therapy the therapist kills the harmful substances and as well as makes sure that the routine functions of the normal cells are performed without any disturbances.

Thermography

Thermography is a tool which identifies breast cancer that uses super-sensitive infrared cameras and computer technology to detect heat on the surface of a patient’s breast. The presence of such heat is sometimes the result of intensive chemical and blood vessel activity that is characteristic of precancerous or cancerous tissue.Although some health professionals support the use of thermography (also known as digital infrared imaging).It may not detect small cancers or tumors deeper in the breast and it cannot pinpoint the location of a tumor. Two factors cause cancerous cells to generate heat that theoretically can be detected during thermography:Higher metabolic activity of cancer tissue compared to normal tissue. Cancer cells have higher rates of metabolism (physical and chemical processes in the body) than normal tissues. This higher metabolism registers as an increase in the surface temperature of the breast near the cancerous tissue. This is detected by the infrared camera.Angiogenesis. A cancerous tumor produces a chemical that promotes the development of blood vessels that supply the tumor with the nutrients it needs to keep growing. In addition, the cancer causes normal blood vessels to dilate (open) to provide even more blood to the forming tumor. Both of these activities produce additional heat which may be detected by the infrared camera.The infrared camera used during thermography converts infrared radiation emitted from the skin into electrical impulses and feeds the information into a computer. The computer analyzes the temperature and vascular (blood vessel) changes and produces high-resolution images known as thermograms. These images can be displayed on a monitor for analysis, with areas of raised temperature appearing red and areas of normal temperature appearing blue. They can also be printed or sent to another physician electronically.Thermography has been tested and researched since the 1950s. It originally involved the use of contact plates that measured the heat emitting from the breasts, although thermograms are now produced digitally. In 1982, the U.S FDA approved the use of thermography to help detect breast cancer and some circulation disorders, such as deep vein thrombosis and conditions relating to blood flow in the head and neck.Proponents of thermography claim that the technique can detect signs of precancerous or cancerous cells far earlier than other imaging techniques. For example, mammography technology cannot detect cancer until a tumor has actually begun to form, which may take several years. Thermography is designed to detect the formation of new blood vessels and chemical changes that occur very early in a tumor’s development. Some experts contend that thermography can identify signs of the formation of breast cancer up to 10 years before any other technique can detect them.In addition, thermography is touted as having certain advantages over traditional mammography procedures. During thermography, the machine does not touch the breast, in contrast to the squeezing of the breast that occurs during mammography. In addition, patients are not exposed to the potentially harmful radiation used in mammography.However, many experts have expressed doubts about the effectiveness of thermography in diagnosing breast cancer. For example, the American Cancer Society maintains that thermography is not a reliable diagnostic tool because it misses some cancers and has a high rate of false positives. The ACS warns that thermography should never be used as a replacement for mammograms.Other experts have also criticized thermography for producing too many false results, and have argued that the technique cannot detect the heat of cancers located deep in the breast or under fatty areas. It has also been noted that not all cancers emit heat, and thus would not be revealed by a thermogram.Still, some experts support thermography as a valuable tool in detecting breast cancers. Experts generally agree that thermography should not be used as a stand-alone diagnostic tool, but rather should be used with other diagnostic tools, such as mammograms, ultrasounds and physical examinations.